2-Lit.+Review

Literature Review
Increasing Positive Perceptions on Integration Technology for International School Songdo Teachers Literature Review The National Commission on Education and the Economy (2006) published a report that calls for five specific skills learners must develop in order to be able to thrive in the 21st century and technology is one of the five. This renewed, and arguable strategic, interest in technology is moving education into areas that may be uncomfortable for many teachers. Technology is “…an important teaching strategy in today’s educational settings. United States faces a major shortage of scientists because too few Americans are entering technical fields. America is losing students with the understanding of engineering, technology, and mathematics at the same time other countries are gaining students with strong knowledge bases in those areas. There is broad consensus that schools must do a better job of preparing young people with the skills that will allow them to compete in a global market on a level playing field.” (Lucas & McKee, 2007).

Furthermore, there is a growing need for a new philosophy which supports technology in K‐12 education. Experts are making strong arguments to move from a traditional instructional delivery model to a project‐based, constructivist learning model for a number of reasons. Christensen (2009) writes that recent innovations in technology have created new realities for both learners and teachers. What a child and/or teacher thought was relevant for learning at school fifteen years ago has completely changed since the advent of the Internet, low‐cost computers, Web2.0 technologies, huge and inexpensive digital storage capacities as well as myriad of free or inexpensive project‐based curriculum resources. These innovations are now disrupting classrooms around the world. Marzano’s research based activities support project‐based learning where students use “… investigation, experimental inquiry, decision‐ making, and simulations—all research based activities that use technology in various ways” (2003).

“Imagine a classroom where students are exploring the question, ‘Is nuclear power a good alternative to fossil‐fueled power?’ One group of students studies Marie Curie’s and others’ early discoveries in the physics of radioactivity, while another group researches how modern nuclear fission and fusion works, and a third analyzes current French politics and policies on nuclear power, including an online discussion of the issues with students in France. With the aid of appropriate digital technologies, the students synthesize and share their findings with each other and propose creative alternatives and possibilities. Then the entire class holds a debate on the issues in front of parents and members of the community, and posts its findings on the internet for other classes around the world to share in and comment on. In the process, in addition to Science, Math, History and Economics, students learn to become better analytical and synthetic thinkers, more effective collaborators and communicators, better users of digital technologies, globally aware, environmentally literate, and civic‐minded. Their projects develop in them a number of life skills as well, ranging from flexibility to initiative to cross‐cultural communication to leadership.” (Trilling & Fadel, 2009).
 * What would such a classroom look like? Here is one vivid example:**

Schrum et al report how technology “…also helped to create life‐long learners, a significant goal of education. Teachers expressed a concern that their students develop a love of learning beyond the classroom and that technology helps to do this” (2008, p. 8). Turner suggests that “…not since the introduction of the blackboard have we seen a piece of equipment make such a difference in how we teach. Today, not only do we use computers, but we also have laptops, wireless laptops, and tablet PCs. In addition, we have the World Wide Web, scanners, CD burners, USB drives, digital cameras and digital video cameras, PDAs, as well as video and DVD players. And most educators use a variety of tools‐ including video, e‐mail, desktop conferencing, online programs such as WebCT and Blackboard, as well as video conferencing‐to teach. Thus, it is no longer acceptable for educators to be technology illiterate.” (2005).

The shift toward student‐centric learning offers much for students, teachers, and administrators in terms of learning and even potential cost savings. Christensen substantiates, “Like all disruptions, student‐centric technology will make it affordable, convenient, and simple for many more students to learn in ways that are customized for them” (p.92). The following review of the related literature has been organized by teachers’ perceptions on integrating such technology into the regular classroom of today.

Christensen and others have identified the constructivist approach to education ‐ a “guide by the side” idea ‐ as one model to deal with disrupting innovations found in classroom today. Yet schools trying to change from traditional “sage on the stage” delivery to a more learner‐focused methodology like “guide by the side” find that is not as easy as it sounds. Wadmany and Levin’s (2008) study demonstrates that “… spending three years in a technology‐rich learning environment can produce substantive change in teachers’ classroom practices. It seems that the learning processes that take place when teachers are exposed to new goals, practices, types of problems, and instructional modes challenge teachers to modify their teaching practices. These results strengthen Jacobsen’s (2002) claim that change depend on the teacher’s capacity to “build new bridges” through constructivist learning experiences. The study therefore supports the distinction between the mechanisticfunctional use of ICT and the use of ICTs as enhancing a learning culture that both affects and is affected by teachers’ capabilities, expectations and experiences” (Levin & Wadmany, 2006). The structure of school systems is so engrained in the mind set of teachers and administrators that attempts to change philosophy and methodology can be very difficult to accept across the school. “Typically, teachers use linear, authoritative, teacher‐centered methods, they disregard computers, and resist efforts to move the dominant paradigm away from teacher‐centered teaching to a more student‐centered classroom.” (Wadmany & Levin, 2006, p. 157).
 * Teachers Perception on Integrating Technology**

The literature review indicates that is not easy to change teachers’ perceptions on integrating technology because teachers are afraid of changes. Technophobia is a real problem for schools trying to adopt new technologies. “Technophobia is still a problem with at least half of our faculty” (Schrum et al, 2008, p. 10). Technophobia rising from a lack of confidence ‐ low self‐efficacy ‐ can destroy any initiative to have a successful roll‐out of the new philosophy. Li’s view that “…many elementary and secondary teachers were techno‐phobic and were most anxious about dealing with the actual hardware in classroom settings, about computer crashes and errors, and about learning to use computers” (2007, p. 379‐380). Wang et al’s results suggested that “… lack of confidence for teaching with computers was an important factor influencing the levels of computer use by student teachers. Taken together, these studies suggest that teachers' beliefs—and self‐efficacy beliefs in particular—are useful indicators of levels of technology integration. Certainly, they provide sufficient reason to undertake further investigations in this area and to consider approaches to teacher education and professional development that might be effective in increasing self‐efficacy for teaching with technology.” (2004, p. 3). Additional studies support such a view of the importance of self‐efficacy. “Compeau, Higgins, and Huff (1999) conducted a longitudinal study with 394 subscribers to a periodical over a one‐year interval to test the influence of computer self‐efficacy beliefs, outcome expectations, affect, and anxiety on computer use. Their findings provided strong confirmation that computer self‐efficacy beliefs had a significant positive influence on computer use.” (in Cyrus, 2008).

Teachers need professional development activities that allow them to experience the new way of methodology and philosophy in non‐threatening ways so as to give them enough practice and support so they can begin to understand why is important to change. As an example of the growing need for new professional development opportunities that teachers need to take advantage of, Turner has identified 20 basic technology skills that all educators should now have (2005):

1. Word Processing Skills 2. Spreadsheets Skills 3. Database Skills 4. Electronic Presentation Skills 5. Web Navigation Skills 6. Web Site Design Skills 7. E‐Mail Management Skills 8. Digital Cameras 9. Computer Network Knowledge Applicable to your School System 10. File Management & Windows Explorer Skills 11. Downloading Software From the Web (Knowledge including eBooks) 12. Installing Computer Software onto a Computer System 13. WebCT or Blackboard Teaching Skills 14. Videoconferencing skills 15. Computer‐Related Storage Devices (Knowledge: disks, CDs, USB drives, zip disks, DVDs, etc.) 16. Scanner Knowledge 17. Knowledge of PDAs 18. Deep Web Knowledge 19. Educational Copyright Knowledge 20. Computer Security Knowledge

The more mature faculty seem to have the hardest time with such myriad technologies due to their different experiences in teacher training courses. Zhiting & Hanbing report that many “…classroom teachers practicing today were not educated in classrooms with technology, and those who were probably did not see technology used in meaningful ways to engage learners. Studies during the past decade show that technology integration in the curriculum improves students’ learning processes and outcomes. When teachers were introduced to computers as problem‐solving tools, it changed the way they perceived teaching” (in Cyrus, 2008).

Younger faculty seem to have a different attitude towards such a skill set than their senior counterparts since they grew up with digital technology and this may affect professional development activities as well. Wong and Wong report that “…they [young faculty members] are products of an increasingly global economy, where knowledge is power and laptop computers often provide the quickest means to attaining both. Many of today's young teachers not only have access to millions of digital resources, they also have at their fingertips thousands of professional and social networks. They are receptive to working in teams, and they are good at it. They do not blink at the mention of blogging, "Googling," or using Wikipedia.” (2007).

Ease of use and usefulness were two factors affecting acceptance in pre‐service faculty. Yuen and Ma (2002) study indicated “… that usefulness of technology had a significantly positive effect on teachers' intentions to use computers in the classroom. The teachers who reported high levels of personal use were more likely to use computers in classrooms. Further, when a computer was perceived as easy to use, teachers tended to think it was useful and intended to use them in the classroom.” (in Li, 2007).

Not only do teachers need professional development they also need to have support and resources to continue the process over time. “Many schools have attempted to provide professional development programs to prepare teachers to integrate technology into their curriculum. It appears that when support and funding disappear, so does change in practice for technology programs. Furthermore, brief classes or workshops without ongoing support seem to create few substantive changes in curriculum and classroom practice” (Schrum et al, 2008, p. 3). The process to change the perceptions needs support and funding in order to be successful.


 * Stories of success after they change**

Appropriate professional development can make a difference in teacher perceptions of technology in the classroom. Lucas and McKee found that teachers who used both hardware and software to improve the achievement level of the students made a change in their perceptions from “… technology may be useful to I use it regularly to improve learning and motivation” (2006). Roschelle et al (2000) found that motivation for professional development increases as teachers grow their own technology skills in alignment with specific school‐wide objectives. The literature review reports "… numerous literature surveys link student technology achievement to teachers' opportunities to develop their own computer skills" (p.90).

Schools need to reinforce and support faculty if they are going to make successful changes in technology implementation. One way that faculty embrace technology is through “… networking with mentors and other teachers electronically, teachers can overcome the isolation of the classroom, share insights and resources, support one another's efforts, and engage in collaborative projects with similarly motivated teachers” (Roschelle, 2000, p.91).

Academic achievement increases with teachers who use technology more than others in a comparison of upper elementary math classes. Teachers who were high level users of technology had better scores from their classes than faculty who were low level users. The frequency, extent of use, methodology, attitudes, variety of applications and positive perceptions of how technology influences achievement made a difference. (Middleton & Murray, 1999).

Technology adoption decisions are influenced by teachers’ individual attitudes towards technology adoption, which are driven by the teacher attitudes and beliefs about consequences of adoption. “When technology is used as a tool, the teacher becomes a facilitator and students take on a proactive role in learning.” (Sugar et al, 2004, p. 2). This combination creates a classroom where academic achievement increases due to the belief that technology will support student efforts in “getting it” right.

Students who use Web resources in middle school science classes were better engaged and had a more active role in their learning than classes that did not use the Web. Communication and collaboration increased amongst the students and between students and teachers. Faculty also had found a new role as facilitator versus instructor due to the Web influences on the students (Kim et al, 2003).

Teachers as peer supporters ease the adoption of technology which accounts for higher levels of attitude, facilitated through computer‐aided discussions. This also helps to integrate objectives and opportunities as teachers keep working together in online collaboration after the professional development ends. A need to discuss successes and challenges to implementation help faculty to feel that their peer group can share similar experiences as they work with implementation of technology in their classroom. (Kozalka, 2001).

To sum up the literature review, in order to have a successful adoption of technology across a school, there needs to be consideration for the objectives – the standards – desired, the level of maturity across the faculty, peer support groups, a focus on learning versus teaching (e.g., guide by the side approach), good attitude towards technology, and a belief that technology is a good addition to the regular classroom.

The purpose of this paper was to identify the perceptions of teachers working for an International School of Songdo in South Korea.

The finding from this thesis are How hard is it to change? Why should they change? Stategies to help them change?